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Louis Althusser – Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses

  Louis Althusser was a Marxist thinker from France who tried to explain how the State controls people in modern society. He said that the State does not control people only by force, but also by ideas and beliefs. State Apparatus and Repressive State Apparatus According to Althusser, the State Apparatus includes the government, administration, army, police, courts and prisons. He calls these the Repressive State Apparatus because they mainly use violence or the threat of violence to control people. This repression can be physical, like arrest and jail, or non‑physical, like certain strict administrative actions. Ideological State Apparatuses (ISAs) Althusser then introduces another idea called Ideological State Apparatuses (ISAs). ISAs are institutions in society that look separate and normal, but they spread the ruling class’s ideas. He gives an open list of ISAs: Religious ISA: churches and other religious organisations. Educational ISA: schools, colleges, ...
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Gramsci's Formation of the Intellectuals

Antonio Gramsci (1891-1937) was an Italian communist revolutionary and Marxist theorist. Mussolini's Fascist regime arrested Gramsci because his movement sought to overthrow the existing social order and replace it with a socialist system.   His most influential work the Prison Notebooks was written during his imprisonment. It questions the problem: How does a dominant class maintain its rule, not just through force, but through consent? His work analyses the subtle, pervasive structures of power that shape our reality. While earlier Marxists focused heavily on economic forces, Gramsci shifted focus toward the "superstructure"—the world of ideas, culture, and institutions.   In his Prison Notebooks , Antonio Gramsci explores the multifaceted role of intellectuals in maintaining and challenging social power. The central concept in Gramsci's work is hegemony, a form of rule in which the ruled consent to the power of the ruling class. Hegemony is the process by which ...
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Concord

Rules of Concord (Subject–Verb Agreement) with Examples Concord means the agreement between the subject and the verb in number and person. Below are the main rules of concord , explained simply with examples.   1. Singular subject → singular verb Plural subject → plural verb The boy runs fast. The boys run fast.   2. Two singular subjects joined by and → plural verb Ravi and Sita are classmates. Exception: If they refer to one person or idea, use a singular verb. Bread and butter is my breakfast.   3. Subjects joined by or / nor → verb agrees with the nearest subject Either Ram or his friends are coming. Neither the teachers nor the principal is present.   4. Words like each, every, everyone, someone, anybody, nobody take a singular verb Everyone is happy. Each of the players was rewarded.   5. Collective nouns take: Singular verb when the g...
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Evolution of Marxism

  Marxism emerged from the 1848 collaboration between Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, who transformed the study of society into a materialist philosophy. Instead of seeking spiritual explanations, they argued that history is "motored" by the class struggle for economic and political power. This struggle is rooted in the Base, the material means of production, which inevitably determines the Superstructure, the cultural world of ideas, art, and law. This concept of economic determinism suggests that no cultural product is "innocent"; rather, all art is shaped by the economic forces of its time. In a capitalist system, this drive for profit leads the bourgeoisie to exploit the proletariat by extracting surplus value from their labour. The human consequence of this system is alienation, where workers are separated from their own creativity and humanity. Marx identified this as reification, a process where people become things, viewed merely as "hands" or pa...
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"Pride" - Dahlia Ravikovitch

  The poem “Pride” is written by Dahlia Ravikovitch, a noted Israeli poet. She is known for her powerful images to present human emotions, relationships, and the hidden pain behind ordinary life. In this poem, she uses the image of a rock to explore the theme of pride, vulnerability and emotional breaking. The poem begins by saying that even rocks can crack. Rocks normally appear strong, permanent and unchanging. For years, they lie under the sun, rain, heat and cold. They remain motionless, and the cracks inside them are not seen. This creates an illusion of calm strength. The rock becomes a symbol of pride. People also hide their weaknesses and do not show their pain. They appear calm and strong from the outside. The poem then shows that time passes over the rocks: seasons change, the sea moves, moss and seaweed grow. Everything around is changing, but the rocks still seem the same. This reflects how people go through many experiences while trying to remain steady and strong....
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MARXISM - Detailed Essay

Foundations of Marxism Marxism was founded by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, who announced the advent of Communism in their jointly written Communist Manifesto in 1848. It is a materialist philosophy that seeks concrete, scientific explanations for the world of observable facts, rather than spiritual ones. At its core is the belief that history is driven by class struggle, a competition for economic, social, and political power between the bourgeoisie (owners) and the proletariat (workers). Under capitalism, this struggle involves the exploitation of the working class, where profit is generated by extracting surplus value from their labour. This leads to alienation, a state where workers are "de-skilled" and perform fragmented, repetitive tasks. A key result of this process is “reification”, a term from Marx’s Das Kapital describing how workers are stripped of their humanity and thought of as "hands" or "the labour force"—in essence, people become th...
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Marxism - An Overview - Summary of Peter Barry - Beginning Theory

  Marxism – An Overview   Marxism emerged through the collaborative intellectual work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, two German thinkers whose friendship and shared political concerns shaped a powerful theory of history and society. Marx, originally trained in law, dedicated most of his life to political journalism and philosophical writing. Engels, after leaving Germany, worked in his father’s textile factory in Manchester, where he witnessed the harsh conditions of industrial capitalism first-hand. Their meeting was initiated when Engels read an article by Marx, and from that point their partnership developed into a lifelong scholarly alliance. Together, they produced some of the most influential texts of modern political thought, including The Communist Manifesto in 1848. At the centre of Marxist doctrine is the vision of a classless society. Marxism argues that social inequality arises from the ownership and control of the means of production. In a capitalist syste...
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