MARXISM - Essay

 Introduction

Marxism originated from the combined intellectual work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Their friendship and shared political concerns led to a theory called historical materialism, which explains society through material forces rather than abstract ideas. Marx was trained in law and wrote extensively on politics, while Engels observed the harsh conditions of industrial capitalism in Manchester. Their collaborative text The Communist Manifesto (1848) called for revolutionary change and became a central document of Marxism. The movement rejected idealism and argued that economic structures shape social life, and any true transformation must include revolutionary practice rather than mere theory.

Aim of Marxism

The aim of Marxism is to establish a classless society in which the means of production are commonly owned. Marx believed that capitalism creates inequality because private ownership allows a small class to control land, factories, and capital, while the majority are forced to sell their labour. Marxism seeks to abolish this division by replacing capitalism with a communal system where production benefits everyone. This transition is expected to culminate in communism, where exploitation and oppression disappear and the state gradually “withers away.” The shift from capitalism to communism is driven by the revolutionary action of the proletariat, who overthrow the ruling class and create a new social order.

Class Struggle

Class struggle is the central motor of history in Marxism. According to Marx, historical progress does not occur peacefully, but through conflict between classes competing for power and resources. In capitalism, this struggle appears between the bourgeoisie, who own the means of production, and the proletariat, who labour for wages. Profit is created by extracting surplus value from workers, since the value they produce is greater than the wages they receive. This imbalance drives economic and political change. Marx argued that as exploitation intensifies, workers will develop class consciousness and eventually overthrow capitalism. Class struggle therefore explains the movement from feudalism to capitalism and ultimately toward communism.

Alienation

Alienation is a key concept in Marxism. Industrial labour separates workers from what they produce, from the act of production, from other workers, and finally from their own human nature. Work becomes repetitive and mechanical, and labour is reduced to a commodity that can be bought and sold. Capitalism denies workers their creative potential, causing a loss of “species-being,” the essential human capacity for self-expression and creativity. Alienation is not a psychological condition but a structural result of capitalism, where the worker becomes an object in the system rather than an autonomous human being.

Base and Superstructure

Marxism describes society through the relationship between base and superstructure. The base consists of the economic foundation: labour, technology, production, and distribution. The superstructure includes law, politics, religion, culture, and literature. The base shapes the superstructure, a relationship known as economic determinism. Cultural institutions reflect the interests of the ruling class, whose control extends to the means of mental production. What appears as “common sense” is often ideology that supports existing power. Literature participates in this system by either reinforcing dominant beliefs or exposing contradictions. The superstructure is not passive, for it can also resist or challenge economic forces, but it remains deeply connected to the economic base.

Marxist Literary Criticism

Marx and Engels did not produce a strict literary method, yet their ideas strongly influenced literary studies. Marxist criticism examines literature as part of the social process, asking how texts reveal ideology, class relations, and power. Literature is seen as socially symbolic rather than purely aesthetic. Narrative, characterisation, and imagery may reveal class conflict even when the text does not speak directly about politics. Literature may expose the contradictions of society more clearly than ordinary speech, and it can show unresolved conflicts or hidden structures of power. Marxist critics therefore look at how literature contributes to shaping consciousness while reflecting material conditions.

Leninism and Socialist Realism

A later development of Marxist criticism came through Lenin, who insisted that literature must serve the working class. Under Soviet rule, literature was expected to follow Socialist Realism, a style that presented loyal workers, optimism, and progress. Bourgeois or experimental writing was rejected as decadent. Writers were controlled by state institutions, and literature became an instrument of propaganda. Yet some authors resisted and revealed conflict, suffering, and complexity, showing that literature could still expose social truth. Socialist Realism required clarity, optimism, and commitment to the Party, reducing artistic freedom but emphasising the importance of ideological unity.

Engelsian Criticism and Reflection

Another direction came from Engels, who believed that literature did not need to supply direct political statements. True art reflects life truthfully and reveals the contradictions of its time. Engels valued “typical characters in typical situations,” where social reality appears naturally. Literature may criticise society indirectly through story, setting, and character, without slogans. This view rejects crude propaganda and recognises that imaginative freedom is compatible with political insight.

Formalism and Marxism

The Russian Formalists concentrated on form, structure, and language. They explored how literature uses devices such as defamiliarisation to make ordinary things appear strange. Marxists criticised formalism for ignoring social content, arguing that literary forms arise from historical conditions. Eventually, critics combined both positions, recognising that form itself can express social forces. Literary technique and ideology are therefore connected, and the analysis of form becomes part of Marxist criticism.

Althusser: Ideology and Apparatus

Louis Althusser renewed Marxist theory by arguing that ideology is a lived reality. It shapes how people think and behave, appearing natural and unquestioned. Althusser identified two kinds of apparatus: the Repressive State Apparatus, including army, police, and courts, which maintain order through force; and the Ideological State Apparatus, including schools, family, religion, media, and culture, which maintain consent. People recognise themselves within ideology through interpellation, becoming subjects of the system. Literature becomes part of this process, either repeating dominant values or exposing contradictions.

Gramsci and Hegemony

Antonio Gramsci expanded Marxism further by explaining hegemony, a system in which the ruling class maintains power through cultural leadership rather than force. Common sense, morality, and everyday habits naturalise the existing order. This explains why revolutions do not easily occur: people consent to the structures that oppress them. Literature becomes a space where hegemony and resistance can be observed. Texts may confirm dominant values or contain counter-hegemonic elements that challenge authority.

Example: Twelfth Night

A Marxist reading of Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night shows how class determines happiness. Aristocratic characters such as Orsino, Olivia, and Viola enjoy romance and resolution, while Malvolio, a steward, is punished for trying to rise above his rank. His humiliation restores social hierarchy and makes class boundaries appear natural. Festivity and celebration belong only to those with status, wealth, and leisure. The play maintains class discipline through comedy and disguises inequality beneath laughter.

Conclusion

Marxism transformed literary criticism by connecting literature to society, history, and power. It studies how texts reflect class struggle, ideology, hegemony, and consent, and how they support or resist dominant values. From Marx and Engels to Gramsci and Althusser, the theory has remained influential because literature is never neutral. It belongs to history and reveals the forces that shape human life.